Zeno of Elea

Zeno of Elea, a 5th c. B.C.E. philosopher, is famous for his ingenious paradoxes. These include, most notably, his paradox of motion, which argues that motion is impossible because all distances travelled are infinitely divisible (Palmer, 2021). The putative father of Stoicism, Zeno inviolably extended the frontiers of philosophy, epitomising a cultural watershed. His inter-disciplinary legacy now pervades modern mathematics, presenting an unyielding challenge to intransigent empiricism.

Fundamental to Zeno’s paradoxes is the notion of infinity and the suggestion that time-space reality is an illusion.

Let us consider his first argument on motion, known as ‘The Dichotomy’.

The Dichotomy

Zeno observes a distance travelled (Lee, 1936). For ease of understanding we will envision a mover running one mile in a straight line. It is ostensibly the case that this distance is finite, and the mover should therefore manage to complete it within a certain timeframe. Sense perception deems this irrefutable to the observer. However, in recognising that the distance is in fact infinitely divisible (to travel the full mile one must first complete half a mile, before that a quarter, before that an eighth and so on), Zeno correctly identifies that the appearance of travelling a finite distance is ultimately illusory. This is because the halving of this one-mile distance, as demonstrated above, can be carried out infinitely many times. Therefore, the distance run is infinite rather than finite. This presents a problem to the empiricist.

In order to complete the one-mile run, the mover must travel an infinite number of finite distances, which Zeno would point out takes an infinite time. The conclusion drawn must be that the distance cannot be completed, or in Zeno’s terms, motion is impossible (Palmer, 2021).

This paradox works two ways. Namely, for the first half of the distance, in which the infinite halves become smaller and smaller, tending to but never reaching zero miles (i.e the starting point); and also, for the second half of the distance in which the infinite halves represent a larger and larger distance completed, tending to but never reaching one mile (i.e. the finishing point) (Palmer, 2021).

An Existential Truth

As stated above, the conclusion Zeno draws from this paradox is that motion is impossible. However, we know from daily experience that it is not. So how do we account for its occurrence? Since true knowledge of motion and other quantitative conceptions concerning physical bodies cannot be accessed through sensory perception (as demonstrated equally proficiently through Zeno’s other paradoxes (Lee, 1936)), we must engage the realm of metaphysics.

Applying Zeno’s observation in The Dichotomy to both perceived ends of the distance travelled, we can identify that this perceived distance is infinitely small (as it tends to the starting point of the journey) and infinitely large as it tends to the finishing point. Overall, the mover tends to but never reaches the limits of zero and one mile respectively, meaning there can be no first or last step.

Observing this incontrovertible demonstration of the paradoxical nature of motion, and applying such inimicality to time-space reality more generally, we may begin to explore the fundamental truths of existence which Zeno’s paradox implicitly reveals. Unfortunately, despite its colossal exposure of the ineffable wisdom underlying existence (an exposure which has never successfully been refuted) The Dichotomy falls short of propounding the metaphysical truths it so powerfully uncovers.

This blog will henceforth demystify and give name to these revelations, whilst simultaneously shedding light on their applicability to statecraft, and seek to derive a new greatness of nationhood in recognition of their immense didactic utility. 

The Divine Principles of Endurance and Expansion

By accepting the dual nature of the universe as infinite endurance and expansion, the illusion presented by The Dichotomy can be broken and Zeno’s paradox solved.

In Part I of this blog series, we considered the spiritual principles of the divine feminine and masculine, as typified in African traditional religion. To recap, the divine feminine and masculine represent a polarity ubiquitous to nature and human society, whereby (according to new-age developments) the receptive, inner-directed feminine contrasts the active, outward-directed masculine. It is upon this dichotomy that universal functioning prevails.

Returning to The Dichotomy, Zeno’s paradox here presents an implicit duality redolent of that upheld in African spirituality. As we have uncovered, in the case of the one-mile runner, there are two conceptions of infinitude present within the distance described. Firstly, that which halves the distance into infinitely small distances tending to zero miles, and secondly, that which expands the distance into infinitely large distances tending to one mile. Zeno specifically targets the notion of all things being infinitely small and infinitely large in his argument against plurality (Palmer, 2021), but for the sake of consistency we shall pursue this idea with reference to The Dichotomy.

Consider the starting position of the runner (zero miles). Where his movement is concerned, this starting position represents a state of potential in which the seed of motion is sown and the runner endures a build-up of energy, intention and strength. The finishing position (one mile) represents the realisation of that potential where, once reached, an exertion by the runner has taken place and an expansion into space has occurred.

Beneath the conclusion of the impossibility of motion thus lies an existential polarity consistent with the smallness and largeness of things. We will name this: the universal principle of infinite endurance and expansion.

The infinite smallness of spaces tending to zero, or the starting position in our one-mile track example, aligns with the existential state of endurance. The runner endures before he exerts himself outwards, and this endurance may take place to varying degrees. In time-space reality this universal state is physically manifested across heterogenous experiences and things. Conversely, the infinite largeness of spaces tending to one, or the finishing position in the one-mile journey, aligns with the existential state of expansion. This universal state is similarly expressed across heterogenous experiences and things.

It is necessarily the case, as demonstrated in The Dichotomy, that these two principles will operate in partnership, whereby the endurance of any experience or thing generally precedes its expansion. In The Dichotomy, infinity of both kinds being contained within all parts of the one-mile distance reveals the infinitude of their potentiality. Ultimately, the universe, which physically manifests itself in time and space, is divinely capable of infinite endurance and infinite expansion. We may think of the former as taking place within itself and the latter outside of itself.

Expressions of Divine Endurance and Expansion in Time-Space Reality

In the case of The Dichotomy, the subject of motion acts as a metaphor for the universe experiencing these dual states of being. For endurance occurs within the body through the tensing of the muscles, and expansion through the body’s projection outwards. At this point of understanding, motion (and time-space reality more generally) ceases to be paradoxical and becomes providential. A subordinate and illusory dimension, the physical world and its concomitant temporal and psychological experiences, is ultimately a shadowy expression of that which transcends sentient comprehension. It is through this expression that divine truth is marginally known.

Other such expressions of the divine principles of endurance and expansion are concurrent within time-space reality. Consider the budding of a flower. A bud consists of cocooned petals whereby development occurs within the bud itself before the flower is ready to burst open. That development is ultimately a state of endurance where the bud contains that being developed within and placing pressure on its walls, until an expansion is ready to occur. That expansion is the pushing outwards of that being contained, the result of which is a beautiful flower. Another clear expression of the divine endurance-expansion principles is the gestation-birth process. The period of pregnancy is a gestation process whereby the pregnant body incubates a new body, and this body grows and expands. As it does so it places increasing pressure on the uterine walls until it is ready to burst outwards into the world, the occurrence of which is literally the expansion of life.

As a brute fact of universal life, the infinitude of divine endurance-expansion means that there can be infinite expressions of these principles. There are many more in the world around us, and tremendously even more worlds, beings and things can and will be created, as is the nature of the universe we inhabit. The most joyous aspect of this revelation is in knowing that this process, which is seemingly inaccessible, is concealed merely by such thin veils as the one-mile run. Upon a closer look by the observer (of any time-space situation), the indomitable power of eternality and its two-fold infinitude may be identified, as was so defiantly demonstrated by Zeno.

In accessing this wisdom, the domain of extension, or that which is perceived by the senses, becomes usurped by the domain of depth, where true power (the power of infinite endurance and expansion) lies.

Endurance and Expansion in Political Philosophy

Hegel’s Theory of Alienation

Like this unyielding infinitude of endurance and expansion, virtually all philosophical disciplines have housed debates concerning notions of an underlying reality from which knowledge or matter arises (a few examples include metaphysics, paradoxes and moral theory). Within political philosophy (and particularly social theory), where reflections on statecraft prevail, these discussions were especially pronounced amongst idealists.

A key proponent of critical theory – Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831) – was a venerated German idealist, belonging to the period of this school in the decades following Kant. Whilst Kant is often cited as the first critical theorist, Hegel was central to the development of modern critical theory (Szelényi, 2009a) and is directly held accountable by its critics (known suitably as the ‘critical critics’).

Hegel’s metaphysical contribution propounded an ideal he termed ‘absolute spirit’ or totality. In our theory of divine endurance and expansion, this state can be recognized as the antecedent to endurance and the zenith of expansion. We will return to this notion later. In Hegelian terms, when absolute spirit has formed, a state of ‘totality’ exists where there is unity between subject and object. Whilst not intended as a God concept, this quasi-divine reality is the ultimate state of reality, where that which is experiencing or perceiving (subjective spirit) is inseparable from that which is experienced or perceived (objective spirit) (Redding, 2020).

Hegel’s central idea was that the history of the universe can be described as a problem of alienation – a problem of separation between subject and object (Szelényi, 2009b). As an idealist, Hegel believed that consciousness (or ideas) precede material existence. In idealism, that idea is generally areligious, but characteristic of some divine reality. For Hegel, this was absolute spirit – the first stage of history. Within this first stage we see ultimate reality and the goal of human experience. The second stage comprises a division between subject and object. This involves the development of the material world without consciousness (object) and that consciousness out of which the material world has been projected (subject). This is a process of alienation, where subject and object separate (Szelényi, 2009b).

Then, as human beings emerge, subject and object begin to merge i.e. consciousness emerges (Szelényi, 2009b). This process involves both the human being (or experiencer/ subject) and their objective conditions (e.g. patterns of social interaction, cultural institutions (Redding, 2020), material conditions etc) interacting. As the individual gains consciousness, they begin to conquer their objective conditions. At the final stage, alienation is overcome when the subject takes charge of his objective conditions. This is when human consciousness is adequate to its existence, or when the human being is the master of his life. In this state, it is not the conditions which rule the individual, but the individual who rules his conditions (Szelényi, 2009b).

This was the central idea of Hegel.

Hegel’s Theory in the wider Literary Landscape

In Kantian philosophy, a distinction is drawn between things in themselves (ding an sich) and things for themselves. Kant argues that the ideas we hold in our minds do not wholly correspond to the world around us. The world is so abundant that the concepts we develop through cognition fail to properly reflect it. Rather, by cognition, we select from the world, that which is important or useful to us (things for themselves), ignoring significant aspects of reality. Therefore, given its inadequacy, human consciousness must be subjected to critical scrutiny (Szelényi, 2009a).

This insight represents the crux of critical theory – that the task of philosophy is to subject human consciousness to critical scrutiny in order to close the gap between human consciousness and the human condition. Since our consciousness does not properly reflect our condition, we must scrutinize it to achieve the greatest possible proximity to reality (Szelényi, 2009a).

The Hegelian system echoes this principle through a dual process of alienation and its confoundment. For Hegel, human history is the unfolding of human consciousness. A cogent account of the human condition, Hegel’s theory of alienation spearheaded an intellectual revolution within 20 ^th century literature, without which (according to sociologist Iván Szelényi (2009b)) 20 ^th century social or cultural theory would not have advanced.

Hegel’s theory further inspired the iconic writings of ‘critical critics’ Bruno Bauer and Ludwig Feuerbach, as well as political philosophy giant Karl Marx (Marx and Engels, 1975). Marx’s theory of alienation (and historical materialism) seismically altered the course of 20 ^th century history, triggering revolutionary transformation across the globe, the remnants of which remain extant today.

The writings of Marx and the critical critics will be revisited in part III of this blog series; but for now, we shall endeavour to explore the theory of alienation with reference to Zeno’s Dichotomy and our endurance-expansion thesis, outlining its applicability to statecraft.

Endurance, Expansion and The Theory of Alienation

In our theory, the universe operates on two fundamental principles: infinite endurance and infinite expansion. The material world, including space and time (and all they encompass) is a subordinate and shadowy expression of these dual principles. All activity which occurs within the spatial and temporal realm is an expression of the fundamental oscillation taking place between endurance and expansion. Given the infinitude of these principles, as we identified through Zeno’s paradox, the ways in which this oscillation can be expressed by universal consciousness are infinite. It is upon this principle that the world and history are founded.

In Hegel’s theory, the idea on which history is founded is a totality of subject and object. History comprises a journey away from totality (alienation) and back towards it (pseudo-realisation). In this system Hegel deals with human history and the development of human consciousness. We will later see how Marx’s modification lends itself to notions of endurance by the individual (or labourer), who capitulates to the obstinate forces of production which exploit him, the output of which is alienation.

The alienation described by Marx can be interpreted as a form of suffering or endurance which burdens the worker and benefits the capitalist. Through the arising of class consciousness (and eventual revolution), Marx argues that this may be overcome. Hegel and Marx differ on whom the ‘universal class’ is that will drive societal change, but fundamentally, the process is the same: history is a journey of alienation and its displacement by increasing self-consciousness, resulting in the triumphant reuniting of the individual with their objective conditions, namely: society, culture and systems of governance. This reconciliation takes place on an interpersonal and collective level.

With our findings from Zeno’s paradox, the sentiments of Marx and Hegel concerning the importance of uniting systems of governance with the human condition, may be echoed. If endurance is one half of the human experience, where a process of alienation (implied suffering) inexorably voyages towards infinitude, and expansion is the other half of this experience, where consciousness arises and induces its powerful obliteration, then the primary task of the state is to invoke this process of expansion and re-connect its citizens (subject) with their surroundings (object). This involves the transmutation of alienation and the transformation of the systems and processes which will enable human society to reach an eventual state of ‘totality’ (or the end of history from a Marxian perspective (Fukuyama, 1989)). To close the gap between human consciousness and the richness of the world around us is to transmute our suffering and embark on a journey of expansion. On an economic and societal level, this would see the reviewing and transformation of systems of governance and the cessation of mendacious methods of policymaking by statespersons and their informants, to ensure those systems and methods prioritise a deep and honest interconnectedness with the citizens they serve. Marx envisioned an ‘ideal society’ as the culmination of this process (although his methods were more revolutionary than reformist). The result of this process would be to redress alienation and its consequences (including the alienation of citizens (resulting in despondence) and of other states (resulting in conflict)), and to establish emotional intelligence as the new cognitive framework for the perfectibility of alienated consciousness. It is with this vision, that by providence and dutiful statesmanship, a viable conception of greatness may emerge.

Coming soon: Part III of this blog series will explore how this process unfolds in modern conditions, with reference to the key crises of neoliberalism and Marx’s theory of alienation. We will postulate a new (“vertical”) conception of history developed from our theory of endurance-expansion.

References

Fukuyama, F. (1989). The End of History? The National Interest, 16, pp.3–18.  http://www.jstor.org/stable/24027184

Lee, H.D.P. (1936) Zeno of elea. London: Cambridge University Press.

Marx, K. and Engels, F. (1975) ‘Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844’, in Collected works, Volume 3. London: Lawrence and Wishart, pp. 231–282.

Palmer, J. (2021) Zeno of Elea, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Available at: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/zeno-elea/ (Accessed: 01 October 2023).

Redding, P. (2020) Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Available at: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hegel/ (Accessed: 01 October 2023).

Szelényi, I. (2009a) ‘Lecture 9 – Marx’s Theory of Alienation’, SOCY 151: Foundations of Modern Social Theory. Available at: https://oyc.yale.edu/sociology/socy-151/lecture-9 (Accessed: 2023).

Szelényi , I. (2009b) ‘Lecture 10 – Marx’s Theory of Historical Materialism’, SOCY 151: Foundations of Modern Social Theory. Available at: https://oyc.yale.edu/sociology/socy-151/lecture-10 (Accessed: 2023).